, the UNFCCC?, 2003.

, The 50 -essential climate variables? are classified in three main groups (atmosphere, oceans and land surfaces)

, Ice sheets, Permafrost, Albedo, Land cover (including vegetation type), Fraction of absorbed photosyntheticallyactive radiation, Leaf area index, Above-ground biomass, Soil carbon, Fire disturbance, Soil moisture, Sea-surface temperature, Seasurface salinity, Sea level, Sea ice, Surface current, Ocean colour, Ocean acidity, Phytoplankton, Nutrients, Oxygen, Tracers, Air temperature, Wind speed and direction, Air pressure, Precipitation, Surface radiation budget, Wind speed and direction, Water vapour, Cloud properties, Earth radiation budget (including solar irradiance), Carbon dioxide

J. Envirosat-», P. Mclucas, and . Maughan, To know more about these projects see for instance -Development of a Global EDOS: Political Support and constraints?, 1988.

P. Morel, Séminaires de prospective scientifique CNES, Les Arcs, 1981.

, de la Qualité et de l'Évaluation of CNES, 2001 and « Contrat pluriannuel État-CNES, vol.1, 2000.

, Alain Bensoussan, president of CNES, 2000.

, NASA's lidar CALIOP would be actually put inside a French satellite 647 , together with a Imaging Infrared Radiometer conceived at Service d'Aéronomie (to detect cirrus and particle sizes) and a modified version of a commercial off-the-shelf wide field camera developed by the American industrial Ball Aerospace. The satellite

, The first French lidar to be put in space to measure the atmosphere would be ALISSA (Atmosphere par LIdar Sur SAliut), in the frame of the Franco-Soviet cooperation to be carried inside the space station MIR by 1992 and finally launched 1996

«. Le, M. L. Mir-», A. Chanin, and . Hauchecorne, , 1992.

, The other two main instruments of the satellite BEST would be a radar to measure rainfall and a radiometer in the domain of hyperfrequences. Some other instruments were in the list of optional measurements

«. Best, . Lerts, C. Loa, and . Sa, Objectifs scientifiques et définition préliminaire d'une mission spatiale dans le-cadre des Programmes GEWEX et Geospère-Biosphère », elaborated by managers at CNES and scientists of, 1988.

. Lerts, C. Loa, and . Sa, Spécifications de mission», elaborated by managers at CNES and scientists, 1988.

, Comité Directeur de la Revue Charge Utile BEST, 1992.

?. and P. M. Mccormick, LITE) inside the Space Shuttle Discovery during a nine-days mission in 1994, measuring the Earth's cloud cover and track various kind of particles in the atmosphere. See for instance: -Scientific investigations planned for the lidar in-space technology experiment (LITE), A team in the Langley Research center would put the Lidar In-Space Technology Experiment, 1993.

, Specifically inside a minisatellite of the family Proteus. and the second one (PICARD or MICROSCOPE delayed, by then, to 2007), while the whole concept embedded in the family Myriade was to launch at a rate of two launches per year. Canceling PARASOL would take out the credibility of the whole microsatellite program 700 . Some others were convinced that questions of image and reputation were equally

, Albeit PARASOL was a French project it was nevertheless to be a part of the NASA's lead A-Train, as its main scientific goal was to get data simultaneously with the lidar CALIOP. A number of projects in common with the NASA's lidar's team at LaRC (and to lesser extent with the University of

, Colorado (PI of the satellite CLOUDSAT also flying in the A-Train)), had already been conducted and withdrawal roughly one year before the launching would have certainly damaged the credibility of

, « Conclusions et recommandations du Comité des Programmes Scientifiques du CNES, 2003.

, « Conclusions et recommandations du Comité des Programmes Scientifiques du CNES, 2003.

, 699 Interview with Jérôme Riedi, LOA, 2013. 700 -Recommandations du Comité des Programmes Scientifiques du CNES, 2002.

, Similar moves were made to create a thematic pole, called POSTEL, in close collaboration with scientists of CESBIO (former LERTS), INRA and CNRM, directed by Marc Leroy, devoted to handling the data for studies related to the land surfaces, which would handle data from POLDER-2 as well as from the future instruments Vegetation and SMOS. They would both work in parallel, sometimes even together

, « Développement du segment sol et coût à achèvement du programme POLDER, 2001.

, Proceedings of -Point Clé ICARE?, 2002.

, 750 -Recommandations du Groupe de Revue ICARE, « Développement du segment sol et coût à achèvement du programme POLDER, 2001.

, Digital Linear Tape, a magnetic tape data storage technology

. «-etude-d'architecture-informatique-du-pôle-icare-», and « ICARE. Dimensionnement du pôle thématique ICARE, 2002.

, That being said, CNES was prone to purchase new equipment for less than 100kE: a SUN Entreprise 5500 of 6 CPU 400 MHz, together with internet network connections, printers, support readers and recorders, jukeboxes. « Etude d'architecture informatique du pôle ICARE, 2002.

, Interviews with new generation of scientists, grown up and trained with digitalized data services, share these views. In general they have pointed however one eventual challenges in terms of data volumes: data obtained through eventual new generation of high-resolution imagery

, For an overview of the arguments mobilized by discourses of Big Data and scientific research see The Fourth Paradigm: Data-Intensive Scientific Discovery?, 2011.

J. Bruno and . Strasser, 782 -Towards 'A natural history of data': evolving practices and epistemologies of data in paleontology, pp.1800-2000, 2012.

D. Sepkoski, See also the forthcoming volume of Osiris -Histories of data?, Sepkoski et al. 785 Interview with Dave Winker, LaRC, 2013.

, Définition du pôle ICARE. Périmètre, Fonctions, Organisation », Point Clé Phase 0, prepared by Anne Lifermann, 2002.

, Synthèse du dossier de Définition Préliminaire du Pôle de compéténce thématique ICARE (Interactions nuagesaérosols-rayonnement-vapeur d'eau) », elaborated by Anne Lifermann, Alain Podaire and some contributions of LOA, 2002.

«. Guide, ICARE's technicians in 2007. 789 Interview with Didier Tanré, LOA, 2014. (computing and information specialists 799 ), belonging to a different entity, 2002.

. «-recommandations-groupe-de-revue, , 2002.

, « Convention Constitutive du pôle thématique Icare "Aérosols, Nuages, Rayonnement, Eau" », signed on 24 October 2003 between CNES

, From the 12 persons working full-time at ICARE by, 2013.

, Crowd source projects have proliferated in the recent years, but the idea of capitalizing in home-computers can be traced back at least to the Search for extraterrestrial intelligence (SETI@home) project launched in, 1999.

S. , L. Star, and J. Griesemer, See as one example : -Institutional Ecology, Translations and Boundary objects: Amateurs and Professionals in Berkeley's Museum of Vertebrate Zoology?, 1989.

C. «-plan-programmatique-du, Observation de la Terre », proceedings and report of the Séminaire de Programmation, 1998.

, Proceedings of the First CNES-NASDA Open-Symposium on cooperation in space, 1997.

, « Panorama des programmes du CNES en Observation de la Terre », Jean-Louis Fellous, Division of Study and Observation of the Earth at CNES, 1999.

, The National Space Development Agency of Japan NASDA was one of the official interlocutors for space activities in Japan; the other one was the Institute of Space and Astronautical Science (ISAS), an older institution pending on the University of Tokyo

, Proceedings of the First CNES-NASDA Open-Symposium on cooperation in space?, vol.881, 1997.

«. Polder--, Perspectives futures », by F. Bermudo, project manager of POLDER, 2001.

, The White House announced on 2010 that the NPOESS satellite partnership was to be dissolved, and that two separate lines of polar-orbiting satellites to serve civilian and military users would be pursued instead. The first one of the civilian ones was launched in 2013, called NPP or Suomi, in honor to Verner Suomi. Source: -The National Polar-orbiting Operational Environmental Satellite System (NPOESS)?, Patricia Vets

«. Polder--perspectives-futures-»,-by, F. Bermudo-;-ilias, J. Manolis, M. Bézy, H. Betto et al., 897 -Reanalysis: Data Assimilation for Scientific Investigation of Climate?, 2001.

, The preparation of ERA-40 started in 1998, funded under EU's Fifth Framework Program in Energy, Environment and Sustainable Development, and the effective simulation would be run between, 2000.

A. J. Simmons and J. K. Gibson, Building upon this experience, ECMWF would begin a third generation of reanalises, called ERA-Interim, which would cover a modest twenty year time period from 1989 to 2009, financed also under EU's Framework Program in Energy, Environment and Sustainable Development. ERA-Interim would use an improved data assimilation system and an improved forecast model coupling atmosphere and ocean, in preparation for a new comprehensive reanalyses to be started by 2015; it would, in principle, reanalyze satellite radiances instead of geophysical variables. -Overview of satellite data assimilation in the ERA-INTERIM reanalysis?, Project Plan?, ERA-40 Project Report Series N°1, 2000.

, Météo-France), the Netherlands and the United Kingdom, as well as meteorological research institutes from Germany (Max-Planck-Institut für Meteorologie, MPIfM) and the USA (NCAR) and the Meteorology Department of the University of Reading. -The ERA-40 re-analysis?, The partners would be weather services of France, 1991.

, Data from two more instruments aboard Nimbus-7 were also acquired: data about ozone concentration from the Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer (TOMS) and about atmospheric temperature from High Resolution Infrared Radiation Sounder (HIRS), Radiometer (SMMR) aboard Nimbus-7 and from the Special Sensor Microwave/Imagers, 1979.

, Data about the temperature were complemented with the data from NOAA's Microwave Sounding Unit (MSU) aboard of NOAA-6 to NOAA-14 satellites since 1979 and its successor Advanced Microwave Sounding Unit (AMSU) aboard of NOAA's weather satellites since 1998. Besides data about the stratospheric and surface temperature were also acquired from the retrievals made from the Stratospheric Sounder Unit the aboard NOAA's satellites since 1979. NOAA provided the physical radiances measured by the Special Sensor Microwave/Imagers (SSM/I) since 1987 and from earlier instruments Vertical Temperature Profile Radiometer (VTPR, the precursor of the High-Resolution 901 -The ERA-40 re-analysis?, aboard NOAA-6 and from its second generation SBUV/2 since NOAA-9 in 1985, 2005.

, On considère les réanalyses comme des observations, en sachant que ces réanalyses sont un mélange de modélisation et d'observations. Mais c'est mieux que rien quand on n'a pas de mesures in situ

, We adapt here the suggestive terminology proposed by Jerôme Denis and Samuel Goëta in a recent ethnographic article describing the internal workings involved in rendering data open in some French local administrations. « La fabrique des données brutes. Le travail en coulisses de l'open data », Jérôme Denis and Samuel Goëta, in « Penser l'écosystème des données, Les enjeux scientifiques et politiques des données numériques », 2013. 914 -On the Reprocessing and Reanalysis of Observations for Climate?, 2011.

, De la valeur des données spatiales : le cas des données de sondage en prévision numérique du temps, Technology Reconciliation in the Remote Sensing Era of United States Civilian Weather Forecasting: 1957-1987?, Margaret Courain, doctoral dissertation, 1991.

, Some examples in the domain of chemical composition or carbon cycle are developed in: -Data assimilation: From photon counts to Earth System forecasts?, Interview with Kevin Trenberth, issue.923, 2008.

, La mesure de toute chose. La mission Topex/Poseidon et l'océanographie spatiale dans les années, 1980.

P. Brasseur, For an account given by some actors see: -Data assimilation for marine monitoring and prediction: The MERCATOR operational assimilation systems and the MERSEA developments?, 2005.

, Actually the notion of simulator was developed within the project ISCCP in the mid-1980s to analyse the data of all the weather satellites: -ISCCP cloud data products?, W.B. Rossow and R.A. Schiffer, 1991 and -Advances in Understanding Clouds from ISCCP?, 1999.

, Use of CALIPSO lidar observations to evaluate the cloudiness simulated by a climate model?, H. Chepfer et al, 2008; and « A CALIPSO lidar simulator to improve cloud representation in climate models?, 1998.

, The expression is taken from several presentations and internal notes describing the observables simulators at LMD, at Mettofice and at NCAR. See for instance, pp.1981-2010

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