, !les!comportements!violents!ou!encore!les!conduites!sexuelles!à!risque!

!. Le and !. , ! en! particulier! l'influence! sociale! des! pairs,! peut! sans!

, !, 2014.

!. Casey and !. , !, 2008.

!. Habib, !. O'brien!, . Smith, and . Steinberg, ! En! effet,! la! plupart! des! conduites! à! risque! ont! lieu! en! présence! du! groupe! de! pairs! qui! semble! constituer!la!source!d'influence!principale!à!cette, !2000la!sensibilité!aux!récompenses!, 2011.

!. Weigard and !. , ! 2014)! et! une! augmentation! des! choix! risqués!, !, 2011.

!. Gardner, !. Steinberg, . Smith, and . Chein, ! Pourtant,! la! nature! précise! de! cette! influence! des! pairs! reste! peu! explorée, 2005.

. Haddad!, dès!lors!que!leur!intervention!était!contrôlée!, 2014.

!. Reynolds and !. , , 2013.

. La!-prise!-en!-compte!-de!-l, intervention! des! pairs! semble! essentielle.! Au! quotidien,! les! pairs! ne! sont! pas! simplement! présents! mais! conseillent,! encouragent

. Beal!, dans!des!conduites!similaires!, 2001.

!. Varela and !. Pritchard-;-jackson!, !qu'il!s'agisse!de!la! consommation!d'alcool,!de!drogues!ou!de!tabac, !, 2002.

!. Blakey, . Boyas, !. Horton, and . Kim, !, 2014.

!. Teunissen and !. Carter!, ! de! relations! sexuelles! (Holman!&!Sillars,!2012),!ou!de!la!conduite!automobile!, 2012.

!. !-résistance, ! mais! pas! d'effet! principal! du! type! d'influence,!F(1,30)!=!2.49,!p!=!.13!ns,!?p 2 !=!.08.!On!note!également!une!interaction!entre!la! résistance! et! le! type! d'influence,! F(2,60)=! 6.19,! p! =! .004,! ?p 2 ! =! .17! (cf.! Figure! 53).! Afin! de! caractériser! cette! interaction

. Bonferroni, Ces! analyses! ne! révèlent! pas! de! différences! entre! les! conditions! conflit! et! non! conflit!pour!les!ballons!à!résistance!faible,!t(30)!=!.33,!p!=!1!ns![M!±!SD!!:!Conflit!:+4.23!±!, vol.33

, ! Non!conflit!:!4.42!±!1.77]!et!résistance!moyenne,!t(30)!=!.16,!p!=!.87!ns![M!±!SD!:!Conflit!:+3.77!±! 1, vol.36

!. Non and !. Conflit,

!. Cependant, ! les! adolescents! explosent! moins! les! ballons! à! forte!réistance!dans!la!condition!conflit!que!dans!la!condition!non!conflit

L. 'anova!-sur!-le!-nombre!-de-;-m!-±!-sd!, ! points! collectés! par! ballon! révèle! un! effet! principal! de! la! résistance!des!ballons,!F(2,60)!=!5273.86,!p!<.001,!?p 2 !=!.90,!indiquant!une!augmentation!du! nombre! de! points! avec! la! résistance

!. Résistance and !. Moyenne, , vol.28

!. !-résistance, ! et! un! effet! principal! du! type! d'influence,! F(1,30)! =!, ! p! =! .36,! ?p 2 ! =! .03! tel! que! les! adolescents! gagnent! plus! de! points! dans!la!condition!conflit!que!dans!la!condition!non!conflit![M!±!SD!:!Conflit!:+23.47!±!14, vol.87

!. Non and !. Conflit,

!. Toutefois, !ces!effet!principaux!sont!modulés!par!une!interaction! entre!la!résistance!et!le!type!d'influence

. Bonferroni, Ces! analyses! ne! révèlent! pas! de! différences! entre! les! conditions! conflit! et! non! conflit!pour!les!ballons!à!résistance!moyenne,!t(30)!=!.66,!p!=!.51!ns![M!±!SD!:!Conflit!:+21.23!±! 4, vol.17

!. Non and !. Conflit,

!. Cependant, ! les! adolescents! tendent! à! gagner! moins! de! points! en! condition! de! conflit! qu'en! condition! de! non! conflit! pour! les! ballons! à! résistance! faible

!. Non and !. Conflit,

, Nous! avons! également! réalisé! une! ANOVA! sur! le! score! émotionnel! rapporté! après!

. En!-réponse!-À!-l'hypothèse!-d-;-tymula!, une! aversion! à! l'ambiguïté! réduite! pendant! l'adolescence!, 2012.

, !pouvait!influencer!l'effet!du!cadre!dans!la!prise!de!décision.!Au!final,!nos!résultats! soulignent!la!robustesse!de!l'aversion!à!l'ambiguïté!(Camerer!&!Weber, !, 1961.

!. Inukai and !. Takahashi, !, 2009.

!. Keren and !. Gerritsen, !, 1999.

!. Pulford, !. &!colman, and . Que!soit!le!cadre!de!présentation, !les!participants!choisissaient!plus!souvent!une!option!risquée! qu'une! option! ambigüe.! Cependant,! bien! que! l'effet! du! cadre! persiste! dans! les! situations! ambigües,! notre! recherche! amène! des! éléments! nouveaux,! à! savoir! l'existence! d'une! modulation!de!la!forme!de!cet!effet!par!le!niveau!d'incertitude.!Plus!précisément,!l'analyse!des! déviations!par!rapport!à!une!valeur!de!référence

!. Processus!(de and . Neys, !, 2003.

!. Kahneman and !. Frederick, !, 2007.

!. De and !. Neys,

. Il!-convient!-de!-préciser!-que!-la!-validité!-de!-l'hypothèse!-de!-tymula!, ! (2012)! repose! avant! tout! sur! la! trajectoire! développementale! de! ce! phénomène! d'aversion! à! l

. Ainsi, !nos!études!2a!et!2b!avaient!pour!objectif!d'appréhender!plus!finement!le!développement! de!ce!biais!intuitif!au!moyen!d'une!adaptation!du!paradoxe!proposé!par!Ellsberg!(1961)!chez! les! enfants,! les! adolescents! et! les! adultes

, progressif! d'une! pensée! intuitive! à! une! pensée! logique! (Piaget! &! Inhelder, !, 1974.

, !les!modèles!du! double! processus,! en! faveur! du! développement! conjoint! des! systèmes! intuitif! et! analytique,! prédisaient! la! mise! en! place! progressive! de! l'aversion! à! l'ambiguïté! avec! l'âge!

!. Vanderputte, !, 2011.

!. Jacobs and !. Potenza, !, 1991.

!. Enfin, hypothèse! d'une! plus! grande! tolérance! des! adolescents! face! à! l'ambiguïté! comme! origine! de! leur! prise! de! risque! exacerbée!, p.2012

. Afin!-de!-généraliser!-ces!-conclusions!-dans!-le!-cadre!-spécifique!-de!-l, engagement! des! adolescents! dans! la! prise! de! risque

. En!effet, . Présentent!une!plus!grande!tolérance!face!à!l'ambiguïté!-d'une!-situation!-(tymula!, and . Van!duijvenvoorde!, ! 2012),! ces! derniers! devraient! prendre! plus! de! risques! que! les! adultes!en!l'absence!d'information!sur!le!niveau!de!risque.!A!l'inverse,!l'hypothèse!d'un!défaut! d'apprentissage!basé!sur!l'intégration!de!feedbacks!chez!les!adolescents!

, décision! à! risque! dès! la! sortie! de! l'enfance! (Falk! &! Wilkening, 1998.

!. Leijenhorst, !Cependant!l'apport!majeur!de!cette!étude!réside!dans!l'apparition!de!, 2008.

. Bechara, . Damasio, !. Damasio, and . Anderson, !, 1994.

!. Cassotti and !. , !, 2014.

!. Houdé, . Moutier, and . !-2011;!-van!-duijvenvoorde!, ! 2012)! et! contrairement! aux! adultes,! les! adolescents! ne! parviennent! pas! à! optimiser! leurs! performances! dans! la! condition! «!nona informé!».! Pour! autant

!. Duijvenvoorde, !Ainsi,!nos!trois!premières!études!conduisent, 2012.

, Face!à!ce!constat!et!à!l'importance!du!contexte!social!à!l'adolescente!

!. Steinberg, ! Ne! parvenant! pas! à! ajuster! leur! prise! de! risque! sur! la! base! de! leur! propre! expérience,! les! adolescents! pourraient! être! davantage!sensibles!à!l'expérience!de!leurs!pairs!en!l'absence!d'informations!explicites!sur!le! niveau! de! risque! d'une! situation.! Ainsi,! l'étude! 4! avait! pour! objectif! de! déterminer! si! l'expérience! risquée! ou! prudente! des! pairs! pouvait! respectivement! favoriser! ou! réduire! l'engagement! des! adolescents! dans! la! prise! de! risque,! en! distinguant! des! situations! pour! lesquelles!ils!disposaient!d'informations!sur!le!niveau!de!risque!et!des!situations!associées!à!un! manque! d'information.! Premièrement, ! il! nous! a! dès! lors! semblé! essentiel! d'envisager! l'influence! sociale! comme! une! source! d'information! décisive! pendant! cette! période, 2008.

!. Gardner and . Steinberg, !, 2005.

!. O'brien!, !2011)!et!l'influence!des!pairs!, 2013.

!. Cohen and . Prinstein, !, 2006.

!. Haddad and !. , !, 2014.

!. Reynolds and !. , , 2013.

. À!un!niveau!de!risque!minimum and . Ainsi, !ce!constat!vient!en!premier!lieu!remettre!en!cause!l'idée! selon! laquelle! les! adolescents! suivraient! aveuglément! leurs! pairs! dans! leurs! prises! de! risque

. Chein, !. Albert, . O'brien, !. Uckert, and . Steinberg, ! alors! que! la! plupart! des! études! se! sont! focalisées! sur! l'impact! néfaste! des! pairs!, !, 2011.

!. Gardner and !. Steinberg,

!. Reynolds and !. Haddad!, ! cette! recherche! met! en! exergue! le! rôle! positif! de! l'expérience!des!pairs!sur!la!prise!de!risque, 2014.

. Lorsque!-la!-correspondance!-entre!-la!-couleur!-et!-la!-résistance!-des!-ballons!-est!-directement!-disponible, ! les! adolescents! ne! semblent! pas! tenir! compte! des! choix! préalables! de! leurs! camarades.! Toutefois,! bien! que! la! prise! de! risque! des! adolescents! ne! soit! modulée! par! l'expérience! des! pairs! qu'en! l'absence! d'informations! explicites! sur! le! niveau! de! risque! dans! l'étude!4a,!l'étude!4b!étend!ces!résultats!en!montrant!la!robustesse!de!l'impact!de!l'expérience! prudente! des! pairs! dès! lors! qu'un! fort! conflit! entre! l'information! sociale! et! les! informations! probabilistes! apparaît.! L'expérience! prudente! des! pairs! pourrait! ainsi! constituer! un! signal! d'alerte!entraînant!une!modulation

. En!-l'absence!-d'un!-contexte!-socioaémotionnel!-saillant, ! nos! résultats! s'accordent! avec! la! littérature! en! attestant! d'une! difficulté! des! adolescents! à! faire! des! choix! avantageux,! circonscrite! aux! situations! d'ambiguïté.! En! outre,! nos! contributions! expérimentales! viennent! soutenir! l'attribution! de! cette! difficulté! à! un! défaut! d'apprentissage! basé! sur! l'intégration! de! feedbacks.! D'autre! part,! l'un! des! apports! majeurs! de! cette! thèse! consiste! à! démontrer! que! face! à! l'ambiguïté! de! la! situation

. Haddad!, ! ! Comment! expliquer! le! désaccord! avec! les! études! antérieures! qui! soulignent! d'une! part! la! résistance! des! adolescents! face! à! l'influence! prudente! des! pairs, Des!divergences!certaines!entre!nos!résultats!et!la!littérature!ne!peuvent!être!occultées! (cf.! tableau! 1)

!. , ! un! impact! négatif! de! leurs! incitations! au! risque!, 2013.

. Haddad!, !, 2014.

!. Reynolds and !. , ! 2013)! voire! de! leur! simple! présence!, !, 2011.

!. Gardner and . Steinberg, !, 2005.

!. Smith and . Chein, !, 2014.

!. Yechiam and !. , ! 2008)! ?! En! outre,! pourquoi!l'impact!de!l'expérience!des!pairs!sembleatail!se!limiter!aux!situations

. Smith, ! 2014)! ?! La! confrontation! de! nos! résultats! aux! données! de! la

. Aux!-conséquences!-négatives!-(ernst!, . Ernst, !. Hale, and . Connell, !, 2005.

!. Ernst, !. Damasio, !. Tranel, and . Damasio, ! de! l'implication! de! processus! d'apprentissage! basés! sur! une! expérience! préalable! (Bechara, !, 2005.

!. Bechara and !. , ! de! l'impact! du! contexte! socioaémotionnel!, 1994.

!. Steinberg, , 2008.

, mais!aussi!de!deux!dimensions!jusqu'alors!sousaestimées!:!l'impact!du!niveau!d'incertitude!et! la! spécificité! du! contexte! social! envisagé.! Selon! nous,! une! explication! de! ces! divergences!

D. 'une!-part,!-les!-contextes!-socioaémotionnels!-saillants!-largement!-représentés!-dans!-la!-littérature-;-chein!, ! tels! que! la! présence! ou! les! avis! des! pairs,! entraineraient! une! augmentation! de! la! prise!de!risque!via!la!modulation!de!la!balance!entre!sensibilité!aux!récompenses!et!sensibilité! aux! pertes,! en! faveur! de! la! considération! des! récompenses! potentielles!, !, 2011.

!. Gardner and . Steinberg, !, 2005.

!. O'brien!, . Smith, and . Steinberg, !, 2011.

!. Weigard and !. ,

!. Si!-ce!-type!-de!-contexte, amplifie! la! prise! de! risque! indépendamment! des! processus! d'apprentissage,! l'impact! de! la! présence! et! de! l

. En!-revanche, ! si! comme! nous! l'avons! envisagé! à! l'issue! de! notre! quatrième! étude

. Casey!, ! l'influence! du! contexte! socioaémotionnel! sur! le! contrôle! cognitif! constitue! notamment! un! enjeu! décisif, risque! selon! les! modélisations! neuroadéveloppementales! actuelles!, 2008.

!. En, !bien!que!l'activation!du!cortex!PFL!augmente!linéairement!avec!l'âge

, !ce!constat!n'a!jusqu'alors!pas!été!confirmé! par! des! données! comportementales.! Néanmoins,! dans! le! champ! de! la! psychologie! sociale,! de! récentes! études! viennent! questionner! cette! conclusion! chez! l'adulte

!. Une!tâche!de!stroop, !, 1999.

!. Sharma, . Booth, !. Brown, !. Huguet, and . Belletier!, !alors!même! qu'un! contexte! d'évaluation! sociale! médiatisé! par! la! présence! d'un! expérimentateur! produit! l'effet!inverse!, !Ainsi, 2010.

. En!-outre,!-le!-rôle!-de!-l-;-chein!, immaturité! du! contrôle! cognitif! dans! la! prise! de! risque! des! adolescents! ne! reposant! que! sur! des! données! de! neuroaimagerie, ! il! nous!, 2011.

«. !froides!»!-impliquant!-des!-processus!-purement!-cognitifs!-et!-un!-contrôle!-exécutif!-«!chaud and !. , ! engagé! dans! la! régulation! de! stimuli! émotionnels! (Kerr! &! Zelazo, 2004.

D. 'une!-part-;-bunge, . Dudukovic, . Thomason, !. Vaidya, and . Gabrieli, ! les! processus! d'inhibition! purement! cognitive! suivent! un! développement! linéaire!, !, 2002.

!. Durston and !. , !, 2002.

!. Liston and !. ,

!. D'autre!-part,!-l'hypothèse!-d'un!-défaut!-spécifique!-de!-contrôle!-exécutif!-chaud!-chez!-les!-adolescents!-est!-soutenue!-par!-l'étude!-de!-sommerville!, ! ! Grâce! à! une! adaptation! émotionnelle! de! la! tâche! du! GoWNogo,! ces! auteurs! soulignent! une! augmentation! du! nombre! d'erreurs!sur!les!stimuli!émotionnels!propres!aux!adolescents,!attestant!ainsi!de!leur!difficulté! à! mettre! en! place! un! contrôle! inhibiteur! efficace! face! à! des! stimuli! à! contenu! émotionnel!, !, 2011.

, L'absence! de! comparaison! développementale! dans! notre! quatrième! étude! constitue!

. Directe!-À!-un!-groupe!-d'adulte!-dans!-cette!-dernière!-Étude, ! nous! ne! sommes! pas! en! mesure! de! conclure!à!l'existence!d'une!réelle!spécificité!de!l'influence!sociale!pendant!cette!période.!Tout! comme! les! travaux! emblématiques! menés! par! Asch! dans! le! champ! de! la! psychologie! sociale! illustrent! la! sensibilité! des! adultes! aux! jugements! perceptifs! de! leurs! pairs!, 1956.

. Chung!, , 2015.

!. Gilman and !. , , 2014.

!. Haddad and !. , , 2014.

!. Nawa and !. , , 2008.

!. Yechiam and !. , ! Par! ailleurs,! l'augmentation! de! la! prise! de! risque! propre! aux! adolescents!en!présence!de!leurs!pairs!(Chein!et!al, 2008.

!. Gardner and !. Steinberg, !2005)!pourrait! refléter! davantage! une! évolution! avec! l'âge! des! comportements! valorisés! par! le! groupe

, ! 1976!;! 1977)! et! d'une! diminution! de! la! prise! de! risque! des!adultes!face!aux!avis!prudents!de!leurs!pairs!(Haddad!et!al.,!2014)!semble!en!effet!soutenir! cette!hypothèse!puisqu'elle!s'oppose!aux!effets!classiquement!observés!chez!les!adolescents, L'évidence!d'une!réduction!de!la!sensibilité!aux!récompenses!immédiates!chez!les!enfants!en! présence! de! leurs! camarades! (Nissan

, pourtant! essentielles! qui! mériteraient! de! faire! l'objet! d'investigations! plus! approfondies

, Comment!les!adolescents!perçoivent!et!anticipentails!l'influence!sociale!de!leurs!pairs!?!Quelles! sont!les!incitations!spontanément!véhiculées!par!les!pairs!?!Quels!types!d'expériences!passées! les! adolescents! sontails! les! plus! à! même! de! partager!avec! leurs! camarades! ?! Bien! que! ces!

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!. Selon!-piaget!-&!-inhelder and . Borst!, ! l'enfant! n'acquiert! une! bonne! compréhension! des! probabilités!que!vers!l'âge!de!11a12!ans.!Or!comme!cela!a!pu!être!récemment!démontré!dans! différents!domaines!de!la!cognition!, !de!nouvelles!évidences! attestent! de! compétences! plus! précoces! que! ce! que!, 1974.

. Dans!-le!-cadre!-de!-la!-compréhension!-de!-phénomènes!-aléatoires and !. Kuzmak!-&!-gelman,

. De!-hasard.!-!selon!-eux, ! non! saillance! des! indications! indiquant! le! caractère! aléatoire! de! la! situation,! la! focalisation! sur! les! aspects! déterministes! des! mécanismes! utilisés! ainsi! que! l'ambiguïté! des! questions! posées! à! l'enfant! ! (i.e.! souvent! comprises! comme! une! incitation! à! deviner!l'issue)!expliquerait!les!difficultés!rencontrées!par!les!enfants!les!plus!jeunes.!Ainsi,!à! l'aide! de! deux! dispositifs! ingénieux

. Précoce!de!la!notion!de!hasard, !Après!avoir!expérimenté!les!dispositifs!(cf.!Figure!55),!chaque! enfant!devait!indiquer!et!justifier!s'il!était!en!mesure!de!savoir!quelle!couleur!allait!être!tirée

, Cette! étude! suggère! que! dès! l'âge! de! 4! ans,! les! enfants! présentent! une! compréhension! du!

. En!outre, !. Acredolo, . O'connor, and !. Banks!et!horobin, , 1989.

, !Plutôt!qu'une!tâche!de!choix! forcé! entre! deux! situations,! les! enfants! avaient! pour! consigne! d'estimer! la! satisfaction! du! petit! insecte! selon! la! combinaison! de! pots! colonisés! et! non! colonisés! (cf.! Figure! 56).! Cette! estimation! repose! ainsi! sur! un! jugement! de! probabilité! impliquant! l'estimation! des! chances! de!l'insecte!de!tomber!sur!une!araignée, colonisés!par!des!araignées,!l'insecte!devait!éviter!ces!derniers

, +L'enfant+doit+estimer+la+satisfaction+d'un+insecte+qui+souhaite+se+ nourrir+d'une+fleur+mais+risque+de+tomber+sur+un+pot+colonisé+par+une+araignée, 1989.

, Notons! cependant! que! ces! erreurs! persistantes! ne! semblent! pas! refléter! un! défaut! de! jugement! probabiliste! à! proprement! dit! mais! plutôt! une! sensibilité! des! enfants! face! à! l'interférence! d'une! situation.! Pour! vérifier! cette! hypothèse, 1995.

, + Dans+ la+ situation+ d'interférence,+ l'urne+ contenant+le+plus+d'éléments+favorables+ne+correspond+pas+à+l'urne+la+plus+avantageuse, Figure+ 57+:+ Tâche+ de+ jugement+ de+ probabilité+ proposée+ par+ Reyna+, 1995.

, Alors! que! les! enfants! et! les! adultes! parviennent! parfaitement! à! déterminer! l'urne! la!

. Ce!constat,!une!étude!récente, !a! permis! d'éprouver! la! capacité! des! enfants! âgés! de! 6! à! 13! ans! à! prioriser! l'information! probabiliste! sur! les! informations! non! pertinentes! d'une! situation!, 2013.

!. Selon and . La!dominance!d'éléments!non!pertinents!pourrait!!notamment!expliquer!la!-difficulté, !des!enfants!dans!des!tâches!de!choix!forcés!comme!celles!proposées!par!Piaget,!en! comparaison!aux!situations!d'évaluation!probabiliste.!Après!avoir!désigné!parmi!un!ensemble! d'animaux! celui! qui! serait! son! ami! dans! le! jeu,! l'enfant! devait! effectuer! un! choix! entre! deux! maisons! pour! y! découvrir! des! trésors,! en! s'aidant! s'il! le! souhaitait! des! prédictions! de! deux! animaux!

!. La!-plus!-importante and . Qu, il! s'agisse! ou! non! de! celui! désigné! comme! ami! pendant! le! jeu!

, Les!résultats!de!cette!étude!relèvent!une!supériorité!du!statut!de!l'animal!sur!la!validité!

, ! A! 6! ans,! la! pertinence! de! leurs! choix! diminue! lorsque! l'animal! qu'ils! ont! désigné! comme! leur! ami! est! celui! dont! la! validité! des!, de! ces! prédictions! chez! les! enfants! les! plus! jeunes

!. Est!-la!-plus!-forte.!-selon, ! les! erreurs! des! enfants! ne! relèvent! pas! d'un! défaut! d'intégration!de!l'information!probabiliste!mais!d'une!difficulté!à!prioriser!cette!information! par! rapport! aux! autres! éléments! non! pertinents! de! la! situation.! Bien! que! les! enfants! soient! capables!d'évaluer!les!probabilités

, !il!faut!également!préciser!que!si!la!quantification!des!probabilités!dans!des!

, tâches! de! jugement! semble! plus! précoce! que! la! trajectoire! développementale! décrite! par!

!. Piaget and !. Inhelder, ! les! enfants! semblent! rencontrer! des! difficultés! à! générer! des!, 1974.

. Contenant!-un!-certain!-nombre!-de!-perles!-gagnantes!-et!-de!-perles!-perdantes, ! Une! fois! l'urne! complétée,! l'expérimentateur! pouvait! choisir! l'urne! de! son! choix! pour! tirer! une! boule! gagnante! alors! que! l'enfant! devait! tirer! dans! l'urne! restante,! d'où! sa! nécessité! de! bien! équilibrer

, Selon!les!modèles!normatifs!de!la!prise!de!décision,!le!processus!décisionnel!se!déroule!

, en! 5! étapes! consécutives!:! 1)! l'identification! des! différentes! options

. Comme!nous!venons!de!le!voir, !l'une!des!règles!décisionnelles!applicables!par!un!être!

E. V. !=!v1!p1!+!v2!p2!+!?!+!vn!pn,

!. Bien!-qu'ils!-n'en!-aient!-pas!-initié!-la!-terminologie,!-c'est!-À!-balise!-pascal, !. Pierre, and . Fermat,

!. Cadet, !, 2009.

!. Trepel and !. , ! Mais! bien! qu'elle! ait! inspiré! de!, 2005.

, Imaginez! que! vous! soyez! confronté! au! choix! entre! les! deux! options! suivantes!

!. Le!concept!d'utilité, . Dans!un!essai!par!le!mathématicien!, and . Jacques,

, ! les! individus! ne! baseraient! pas! leurs! choix! sur! l'espérance! mathématique! mais! sur! la! désirabilité! ou! l'utilité! d'une! option! en! la! pondérant! par!sa!probabilité!d'occurrence.!!La!notion!valeur!espérée!subjective!vient!alors!remplacer!la! notion! de! valeur! espérée! (Lopes,! 1994).! L'utilité! espérée! a! été! modélisée! par! la! loi! de! diminution!de!l'utilité!marginale!qui!décrit!une!fonction!concave!selon!laquelle!une!différence! constante! entre! deux! valeurs! diminue! avec! l'ampleur

, Comme!l'illustre!la!Figure!59,!la!concavité!de!la!fonction!d'utilité!décrite!par!Bernoulli!

, implique! que! l'utilité! d'un! résultat! r! pondéré! par! une! probabilité! de! .50! soit! inférieure! à! l'utilité!d'un!résultat!deux!fois!inférieur!à!r+

, + En+ rose+:+ l'utilité+ subjective+ d'une+ différence+ constante+ x+ entre+ deux+ enjeux,V1 et V2,+ + diminue+ avec+ l'ampleur+ de+ ces+ enjeux, Figure+ 59+:+ Illustration+ de+ la+ loi+ de+ diminution+ de+ l'utilité+ marginale+, 1954.

C. 'est!dans!le!cadre!d'un!programme!visant!à!identifier!et!modéliser!les!transgressions!-systématiques!-d'une!-«!rationalité!-normative!»!-que!-daniel!-kahneman and !. Amos, Tversky! ont! élaboré! la! théorie! la! plus! emblématique! dans! le! domaine! de! la! prise! de! décision! sous! incertitude

. Nobel!-d'économie!-en, !, 1979.

!. A. Tversky!-&!-kahneman,

!. Amos!-tversky and !. Kahneman, , 1992.

, Selon!la!théorie!des!perspectives,!la!valeur!d'un!résultat!potentiel!est!multipliée!par!son!

, !Cette!modélisation!repose!ainsi!sur!deux!fonctions!capitales!:!la!fonction!de!

%. La, fonction)de)pondération)

, La! fonction! de! pondération!se! rapporte! à! la! transformation! de! la! probabilité! d'occurrence! d'une! issue! en! pondération! subjective! de! sa! valeur.! Cette! fonction! n'est! pas! linéaire!dans!le!sens!où!elle!n'est!pas!superposable!avec!la!fonction

!. Kahneman, !. Tversky, and !. , !illustrent!ce!point!de!référence!par! l'exemple! du! ressenti! relatif! de! la! température! de! l'eau.! Imaginez! vous! plonger! votre! main! dans!un!récipient!contenant!de!l'eau!tiède.!Nul!doute!que!l'eau!vous!paraîtra!chaude!si!vous! avez! précédemment! trempé! votre! main! dans! un! récipient! d'eau! froide! alors! qu'elle! vous! aurait! paru! froide! à! la! sortie! d'un! récipient! d'eau! chaude! et! ce! malgré! une! température! strictement! identique.! De! la! même! manière, des!pertes!de!la!fonction!d'utilité!en!modélisant!la!valeur!subjective!des!gains!et!des! pertes.!Cette!fonction!répond!à!trois!principales!caractéristiques!:! Premièrement, 1979.

. Le!-concept!-de!-point!-de!-référence, ! différentes! études! attestent! que! les! attentes!de!l'individu!viennent!moduler!l'évaluation!d'un!résultat!(!Mellers, 2000.

!. Mellers and !. ,

!. Mcgraw, . Mellers, . Schwartz, !. Ho, . &!-ritov-;-!-mellers et al., , 1997.

, ! désavantageuses! et! intermédiaires)! étaient! présentées! aux! participants,!selon!lesquelles!le!

, + Alors+ que+ le+ résultat+ nul+ correspond+à+l'issue+la+plus+favorable+dans+les+roues+désavantageuses,+il+correspond+à+l'issue+la+moins+favorable+dans+ les+roues+avantageuses.+ Deuxièmement,!dans!la!continuité!des!travaux!de!Bernoulli, Figure+ 61+:+ Situations+ de+ prise+ de+ décision+ utilisées+ dans+ l'étude+ de+, 2001.

!. ?!(loewenstein!,

!. De!la!même!façon,

. Ainsi, ! tout! comme! la! concavité! de! la! courbe! des! gains! entraîne! une! aversion! au! risque

, Dans+ le+ domaine+ des+ pertes,+ la+ convexité+ de+ la+ fonction+ de+ valeur+ implique+ une+ propension+ pour+ le+ risque+ dans+la+mesure+où+la+valeur+attribuée+à+un+résultat+Wr+pondéré+par+une+probabilité+de+.50+est+moins+négative++que++la+ valeur+accordée+à+un+résultat+de+Wr/2. En+rose+:+La+pente+de+la+fonction+de+valeur+pour+les+pertes+est+plus+raide+que+ celle+des+gains,+expliquant+ainsi+le+phénomène+d'aversion+aux+pertes.+ Enfin,!comme!on!peut!le!remarquer!sur!la!Figure!62, Figure+62+:+Fonction+de+valeur+décrite+par+Kahneman+et+Tversky+(1979)+dans+le+cadre+de+la+Prospect+theory.+En+bleu+:+ Dans+le+domaine+des+gains,+la+concavité+de+la+fonction+de+valeur+implique+une+aversion+aux+risques+dans+la+mesure+où+ la+valeur+attribuée+à+un+résultat+r+pondéré+par+une+probabilité+de+.50+est+inférieure+à+la+valeur+accordée+à+un+résultat+ de+ r/2+

. Valeur!-dans!-le!-domaine!-des!-pertes!-est!-plus!-raide!-que!-dans!-le!-domaine!-des!-gains, ! Cette! dernière! caractéristique! de! la! fonction! de! valeur! née! d'un! constat! massif! dans! le! contexte! décisionnel!:!l'aversion!aux!pertes.!En!effet,!la!majorité!des!individus!refuseront!de!participer! à! un! jeu! offrant! des! chances! égales! de! gagner! 50! euros! ou! d'en! perdre! 50.! L'impact! psychologique!d'une!perte!serait!environ!deux

!. Tversky, !, 1979.

!. Trepel and !. , ! menant! ainsi! les! individus! à! accepter! une! option!, 2005.

. Autant!-impliquer!-d'équivalence!-entre!-ces!-deux!-situations and . Si!-le!-développement!-de!-l,

, A!travers!une!série!d'études!comportementales,!Levin!et!ses!collaborateurs!ont!cherché!

, ! deux! boîtes!représentant! une! option! sûre! et! une!, 2003.

!. Levin, . Hart, !. Weller, and . Harshman, !Dans!le!domaine!des!pertes,!l'option!sûre! entrainait! une! perte! certaine! d'un! jouet! ! alors! que! l'option! risquée! permettait! soit! de! ne! perdre! aucun! jouet,! soit! d'en! perdre! 2.! Bien! qu'ils! ne! pattern, 2007.

!. Levin, . Weller, !. Pederson, and . Harshman, !Dans!l'option! sûre,!toutes!les!tasses!contenaient!une!pièce!alors!que!dans!l'option!risquée,!seules!certaines! tasses!contenaient!une!récompense, 8a11! ans! et! à! des! adultes! une! méthodologie! très! similaire! dans! laquelle! les! options! sûre! et! risquée, 2007.

, ! 3! ou! 5! jetons)! permettaient! de! tester! la! capacité! des! enfants! à! ajuster!leurs!choix!selon!les!différentes!dimensions!de!la!situation!en!distinguant!des!options! risquées! soit! équivalentes,! soit! supérieures

, !C'est!résultats!viennent!ainsi!nuancer!la!capacité!à!baser!ses!choix!sur!des! enjeux! et! leur! probabilité! d'occurrence! à! la! sortie! de! l'enfance! (Slovic, domaine!des!gains, 1966.

!. Linda and !. Van,

!. Leijenhorst, ! Toutefois,! le! caractère! stimulant! et!, 2008.

. Néanmoins, ! il! reste! encore! difficile! de! conclure! à! l'existence! d'un! renversement! des!

!. Les!-résultats!-obtenus!-par!-levin, !. Hart, . Weller, !. Levin, and . Denburg, , 2003.

, Une!limite!doit!toutefois!être!soulignée!ici!:!l'ensemble!de!ces!travaux!restreint!l'étude!

, ! Selon! ce! modèle,! les! présentations! mentales! impliquées! dans! la! prise! de! décision! peuvent! être! décrites! comme! un! continuum! allant! de! représentations! exactes,! quantitatives! dites! «!verbatim!, 1994.

, Mais! contrairement! aux! modèles! du! double! processus,! la! fuzzy+trace+theory! souligne! le! rôle! positif! des! représentations! intuitives! (Reyna! &! Brainerd, 2011.

, des! représentations! quantitatives! d'un! problème, 2004.

!. Selon and . La, Fuzzy+ trace+ theory,! l'effet! du! cadre! reposerait! sur! la! dominance! de!