N. J. Lawrenceville, See Haggai Erlich, Ras Alula and the Scramble for Africa: A Political Biography: Ethiopia and Eritrea, 68ff. 5 Such as Rudolf Carl von Slatin (known as Slatin Pasha), pp.1875-1897, 1996.

G. Cuzzi, . Sudan, and H. Gerald, Portal and Sadiq Basha al-Mu » ayyad al-? Azm for Ethiopia. We mention their respective writings further on. 6 Muhammad Ibrahim Abu Salim, director of the National Records Office from 1955 till, 1995.

R. S. See, A. Fahey, and . Bjørkelo, The Writings of Muhammad Ibrahim Abu Salim 7 Conceptions of the Mahdi vary among Sunnis, but according to Sunni doctrine, the Mahdi should appear before the end of times in order to restore the true religion as well as bring justice to the world. For more details, see Wilferd Madelung, Encyclopédie de l'Islam, pp.11-18, 1986.

R. Gabriel, . Warburg, and . Islam, Sectarianism and Politics in the Sudan since the Mahdiyya, pp.22-23, 2002.

R. O. Collins, E. The-sudan-peter, M. Holt, and M. W. Daly, A History of the Sudan from the Coming of Islam to the Present Day The Eastern Sudan, 1822 to the Present, The History of Islam in Africa Nehemia Levtzion and Randall L. Pouwels, 1967.

A. Layish, The Mahdi's Legal Methodology as a Mechanism for Adapting the Shar¯ ? ? a in the

P. Sudan and S. Purposes, Revue des Mondes Musulmans et de la Méditerranée, pp.91-94, 2000.

. Warburg, . Islam, and P. Sectarianism, Khalifa " here not merely refers to a caliphal function but is also?and perhaps more importantly?an integral part of the Sudanese leader's name. This historical figure is referred to as Khalifa ? Abdullahi in, pp.40-41

C. Neufeld, A. Prisoner-of-the-khaleefa, and E. J. Brill, 12 Holt and Daly, A History of the Sudan, 90; Warburg, Islam, Sectarianism and Politics, 47. 13 Negusä nägäst means " king of kings This title traditionally designated Ethiopian emperors. 14 Bahru Zewde, A History of Modern Ethiopia James Currey, 1991), 44; see also Haggai Erlich, Ethiopia and the Middle East The Tewahedo ( " being made one " in Geez) doctrine insists on the single unified nature of Christ as opposed to the belief in the dual nature of Christ espoused by Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches. 16 Jean-Baptiste Coulbeaux, Histoire Politique et Religieuse de l'Abyssinie: Depuis les Temps les Plus Reculés Jusqu Religion and State in Nineteenth-Century Ethiopia The cultivation and use of tobacco were prohibited by the emperor, who associated the substance with Satan and impiety, Sudanese popular and official discourse as well as in most academic writings focusing on Sudan. 11 Several European prisoners detained in the Mahdist capital (Omdurman) wrote at length about this famine. See Joseph Ohrwalder 174. 18 Richard A. Caulk Internal Rivalries and Foreign Threats 333. 20 Some Ethiopian Muslims fled to Sudan and joined the Mahdiyya. See Sadiq Basha al-Mu » ayyad, pp.284-91, 1898.

?. Azm, Min al-Asitana ila Adis Abada, 1896 (Travel to Abyssinia: From Asitana

U. To-addis-ababaabu-dhabi, I. Suwaydi, G. The-mahdists-harold, and . Marcus, It then merged with a wider uprising directed against the taxation policy and execution of a local governor by Ar » aya Sellase (Yohannes IV's son) Ahmed, Islam in Nineteenth-Century Wallo, 178. 264 Iris Seri-Hersch 22 Caulk Ethiopia: Maisonneuve et Larose, 1998), 107; Henze, Histoire de l'Ethiopie, 148?49. 23 Zewde, A History of Modern Ethiopia, 54 The Life and Times of Menelik II: Ethiopia 1844? 24 Zewde, A History of Modern Ethiopia, 56. 25 Sir E. Hertslet, The Map of Africa by Treaty The Life and Times, 81; Abebbe, Histoire de l'Ethiopie For the treaty's background, see the detailed analysis of Zewde Gabre-Sellassie, Yohannes IV of Ethiopia: A Political Biography 26 Francis R. Wingate, Mahdiism and the Egyptian Sudan: Being an Account of the Rise and Progress of Mahdiism, and of Subsequent Events in the Sudan to the Present Time 27 Al-Qallabat appears as Matamma in Figure 1. Although both names are sometimes used interchangeably to designate the border town, al-Qaddal points out that they were two distinct but adjacent towns. See al-Qaddal, Al-Mahdiyya wa-l-Habasha, 14. Al-Qadarif was also known as Suq Abu Sin. 28 See n. 1. 29 A man called Adam Muhammad claimed to be the prophet Jesus and managed to gather many disciples among resentful Mahdist soldiers posted Al-Dikaym's position remains unclear, but he certainly did not succeed in quelling the revolt, 170. 21 For instanceThe History of Ancient and Modern Sudan and Its Geography), 3 vols, pp.422-445, 1884.

M. Peter and . Holt, The History of Sudan) (Beirut: Dar al-Jil The Mahdist State in the Sudan 1881?1898: A Study of its, Origins Development and Overthrow, pp.733-768, 1903.

A. Salim, The Mahdist State, 155; Sanderson Conflict and Co-operation MAHDIA 1/34/10B, Balanbras Bozna Venis Balezla Governor of Jelga to En Nur Salaa, early Jumada al-Ula 1312 Conflict and Co-operation The Life of the Sudanese, 25. 33 See National Records Office (NRO) Yohannes IV, the Mahdists, pp.15-16, 1894.

. Mahdi, A Historical Study of Kitab Sa ? adat al-Mustahdi bi-Sirat al-Imam al-Mahdi, the Book of the Bliss of Him Who Seeks Guidance by the Life of the Imam the Mahdi, N.J.: Transaction Books, 1978.

D. Robinson, The Sudan: The Mahdi and Khalifa amid Competing Imperialisms Abu Salim and al-Qaddal, Al-Harb al-Habashiyya, 17. The Italians later defeated the Mahdists at Agordat (1893) and occupied Kassala, idem, Muslim Societies in African History, 1894.

S. Salim, In a more global perspective, ? Abd al-Qadir could have counted among the victims of " the great purge which accompanied the transformation of the Mahdist theocracy into an autocracy " between 1892 and 1896: Shaked, The Life, 30. 40 Sanderson Conflict and Co-operation The Life, pp.38-39

?. Na, W. Um-shuqayr-francis, and . Wingate, who worked in the Egyptian Military Intelligence, obtained this single copy in April 1895 and gave it to his director, p.42, 1958.

A. Salim, Abu Salim argues that the conception of history that prevailed in late 19th-century Sudan implied the extensive use of oral accounts at the expense of written documents

?. Khalifa and . Uthman, which the Mahdi had previously offered to Muhammad al-Mahdi bin al-Sanusi He died a few months after his manifestation and was succeeded by his brother Sagha, who was killed by a victorious Mahdist army See Holt, The Mahdist State, 136?40; Lidwien Kapteijns, Mahdist Faith and Sudanic Tradition: The History of the Masalit Sultanate 45 See n. 29. the sky to help them fight the infidels. Ten months before the battle, the khalifa had a prophetic vision in which the Prophet informed him of a coming Mahdist victory against the Ethiopians. On the battlefield, fire burns miraculously " devoured the body of killed enemies, Thought Ibid, vol.1870, issue.109, pp.83-94, 1889.

S. Viviane, A. Yagi, and L. Tiraz, Chronique sur la Guerre Soudano-Abyssine de); unpublished French translation of Isma ? il ? Abd al-Qadir al-Kurdufani, pp.1885-1889, 1984.

T. Apostle and . God, said to me As thou didst pray in El Obeid, thou shalt pray in Khartoum, then . . . in the mosque of Berber, then . . . in the Holy House of God, then . . . in the mosque of Yathrib, then . . . in the mosque of Cairo, then . . . in the mosque of Jerusalem, then . . . in the mosque of al-? Iraq, then you shalt pray in the mosque of al-Kufa

S. Warburg, . Islam, . Sectarianism, . Politics, A. Holt-viviane et al., The Sudanese Mahdia 66 For the former, see Sanderson Conflict and Co-operation Abu Salim and al-Qaddal, Al-Harb al-Habashiyya, 9. For the latter, see Cuzzi, Fifteen Years The Sudanese Mahdia, " 289. 67 Yagi applies this last conception to Sudanese?Ethiopian and Sudanese?British hostilities: Yagi, Khalifa Abdullahi, 507. Jihad's defensive function is related to rib ¯ at . , which implies the defense of d ¯ ar al-Isl ¯ am by forces located in ports and border towns (thugh¯ ur) See Majid Khadduri, War and Peace in the Law of Islam Ideology versus Pragmatism, Sa Vie et Sa Politique (PhD diss., Montpellier III, pp.283-88, 1955.

. Holt, A. Daly, . History-of, and . Sudan, Yohannes IV, the Mahdists Sectarianism and Politics, 47. 71 Merid Wolde Aregay and Sergew Hable Selassie Sudanese?Ethiopian Relations before the Nineteenth Century The Origins of the Ethiopian?Egyptian Border Problem in the Nineteenth Century Confronting a Christian Neighbor 267, Journal of African History, vol.89, issue.448, pp.64-65, 1967.

H. Al-nadjashi, The Sudanese Mahdia Conflict and Co-operation 17 74 Although the Aksumite ruler's name is Adriaz in Ethiopian and European writings, it varies in Islamic sources: Ashama, Askhama, Mashama, Sahma, Ashaba. He was usually known as al-naj ¯ ash¯ ?, a term borrowed from the Geez nägâs?nägâs?? that designates the ruler European languages transformed it into negus. See ? Abdallah El Tayeb On the Abyssinian Hijrah: 160; Emeri Van Donzel 75 Historians diverge on the exact Qur » anic verses that he quoted in front of Adriaz, but sura 19 (Maryam) seems to have been recalled. See Van Donzel On the Abyssinian Hijrah, 161. 76 Erlich, Ethiopia, 9. 77 Ibid., 15. 78 For more details, see Khadduri, War and Peace, 252?67. 79 Ibid., 252. 80 Ibid 865. 81 Khadduri, War and PeaceShoa) and claimed direct lineage from the Aksumite kings, who themselves claimed direct descent from King Solomon and the Queen of Sheba. 84 Trimingham, pp.63-75, 1993.

. Shuqayr, ». Ta, and . Sudan, It would be instructive to know what the Mahdi had in mind when using the expression jam¯ ? ? al-» ard

. Ibid, . Shuqayr, ». Ta, and . Sudan, 91 Although the Mahdist armies did not launch any major attack against Ethiopia until January 1888, frequent bidirectional raids had taken place in the border zone since the end of 1885, pp.55-59

. Shuqayr, ». Ta, and . Sudan, 93 Wingate, Mahdiism, 370; Muhammad Sa ? id al-Qaddal, Ta » rikh al-Sudan al-HadithHistory of the Modern Sudan Sharikat al-? Amal li-l-Tiba ? a wa-l-Nashr, 198. 94 NRO, pp.1820-1955, 1889.

A. Al-qaddal, Ethiopia was indeed threatened by Italian advances from the coastal town of Massawa and suffered from many internal power struggles. 98 The Mahdi had often used prophetic visions in order to proclaim the new laws of the Mahdist state. As the Prophet's heir (w ¯ arith) and successor (khal¯ ?fat ras¯ ul Allah), he claimed the ability to communicate directly with the Prophet. See Layish The Mahdi's Legal MethodologyDaftar al-S . adir), 9. 100 According to Ethiopian traditions, forty-four churches were devastated. The sight of Gondar in flames brought back the specter